4 research outputs found

    Southern Route or Northern Sea Route--Whether seaworthiness impacts a ship-owners decision on what route to travel

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    En stor del av vĂ€rldens sjötransporter gĂ„r mellan Asien och Europa. Idag Ă€r den södra rutten genom Suez-kanalen populĂ€rast, men efter att isen i Arktis börjat smĂ€lta har den norra rutten öppnats upp som en möjlig utmanare till den södra rutten och skeppsĂ€gare stĂ€lls nu inför ett val. Sjötransport Ă€r en riskfylld verksamhet och bĂ„de den södra och den norra rutten innehĂ„ller omrĂ„den med ökad risk. PĂ„ den södra rutten bestĂ„r den ökade risken av risk för piratattacker. PĂ„ den norra rutten bestĂ„r den ökade risken av is och hĂ„rda vĂ€derförhĂ„llanden. Syftet med denna uppsats Ă€r att undersöka om rĂ€ttsliga förhĂ„llanden kan inverka pĂ„ vilken rutt en skeppsĂ€gare vĂ€ljer. De valda aspekterna Ă€r förutsebarhet i domstolars bedömning om ett skepp Ă€r sjövĂ€rdigt under ett kontrakt att frakta gods styrt av Hague och Hague-Visby reglerna samt under ett sjöförsĂ€kringskontrakt styrt av den engelska sjöförsĂ€kringslagen. I tvister under bĂ„da kontrakten Ă€r frĂ„gan om sjövĂ€rdighet av stor ekonomisk betydelse eftersom den Ă€r avgörande för ansvar för lasten och för att försĂ€kringsersĂ€ttning betalas ut. SkeppsĂ€garen Ă€r under Hague och Hague-Visby reglerna skyldig att ha utövat due diligence för att tillse att skeppet Ă€r sjövĂ€rdigt samt under den engelska sjörösĂ€kringslagen att han inte har kunskap om att skeppet inte Ă€r sjövĂ€rdigt. Standarden för vad som Ă€r sjövĂ€rdigt skepp, och för vad som krĂ€vs för att anses ha utövat due diligence för att tillse att skeppet Ă€r sjövĂ€rdigt sĂ€tts utifrĂ„n vad en erfaren och aktsam skeppsĂ€gare i den aktuella situationen skulle bedöma som ett sjövĂ€rdigt skepp och vad han hade gjort för att tillse att det var sjövĂ€rdigt. Det Ă€r en objektiv standard som sĂ€tts utifrĂ„n kunskap i sjötransportbranschen utifrĂ„n information i bland annat IMO-instrument. Jurister hĂ€vdar att IMO-instrument har inverkan pĂ„ bedömningen av ett skepps sjövĂ€rdighet i en kontraktsrĂ€ttslig tvist, i vart fall om den aktuella regeln har till syfte att försĂ€kra att skeppet nĂ„r sin destination. Domare verkar dock inte anvĂ€nda IMO-instrument i sĂ€rskilt stor utstrĂ€ckning. Det beror frĂ€mst pĂ„ att informationen de innehĂ„ller inte har nĂ„gon direkt relevans för olyckan. Informationen i IMO-instrument Ă€r ofta för generell och innehĂ„ller inte vad som behövs för att avgöra vad som orsakade olyckan. Ett certifikat behöver inte innebĂ€ra att besĂ€ttningen har den kompetens och erfarenhet certifikatet anger eller att fartyget Ă€r i det skick certifikatet anger. IMO har publicerat riskspecifika rekommendationer bĂ„de i förhĂ„llande till risken för piratattack och att fĂ€rdas i omrĂ„den med hĂ„rt vĂ€der och is. De tvĂ„ rekommendationerna har jĂ€mförts utifrĂ„n dess lĂ€mplighet att anvĂ€ndas som objektiva standarder i domstolars avgörande av ett skepps sjövĂ€rdighet och följaktligen om en skeppsĂ€gare kan vara sĂ€krare pĂ„ att tillhandahĂ„lla ett sjövĂ€rdigt skepp pĂ„ en av rutterna. Om en skeppsĂ€gare kan förutse att fartyget bedöms sjövĂ€rdigt vid val av en rutt, sĂ„ att han inte blir ansvarig för skadat eller förlorat gods och erhĂ„ller försĂ€kringsersĂ€ttning vid skada pĂ„ eller förlust av fartyget, Ă€r det ett incitament att vĂ€lja den rutten. IMO;s rekommendationer i förhĂ„llande till den norra rutten Ă€r mer omfattande och mer detaljerade men saknar ett helhetsperspektiv. Certifikat utges för att bevisa att rekommendationer Ă€r uppfyllda. Den norra rutten Ă€r lĂ€mpligast i ett försĂ€kringsmĂ„l eftersom skeppsĂ€garen med hjĂ€lp av certifikaten kan bevisa att han trodde att fartyget var sjövĂ€rdigt. Rekommendationerna för den södra rutten Ă€r mer generella men Ă€r baserade pĂ„ vad som har fungerat tidigare och har ett helhetsperspektiv. Om rekommendationerna för den södra rutten Ă€r följda torde skeppsĂ€garen anses ha uppfyllt due diligence för sjövĂ€rdighet. Eftersom skeppsĂ€garen bĂ€r bevisbördan i ett mĂ„l under Hague och Hague-Visby reglerna och due-diligence Ă€r en objektiv standard i motsats till under ett försĂ€kringsmĂ„l dĂ€r försĂ€kringsgivaren bĂ€r bevisbördan och mĂ„ste visa att skeppsĂ€garen har kĂ€nnedom om att skeppet inte Ă€r sjövĂ€rdigt Ă€r det viktigast att vĂ€lja den rutt dĂ€r due diligence lĂ€ttast kan bevisas. Om förutsebarhet i den rĂ€ttsliga bedömningen av sjövĂ€rdighet Ă€r avgörande bör den södra rutten vĂ€ljas. Alltför stor tillit bör dock inte denna aspekten tillmĂ€tas eftersom sjövĂ€rdighet Ă€r ett vagt begrepp som aldrig Ă€r riktigt förutsebart.There are two main shipping routes between Europe and Asia, among those the Southern Route through the Suez Canal is by far the most popular route. Due to a decrease in Arctic sea ice, the Northern Sea Route have opened up and is expected to become a viable alternative and a possible competitor to the Southern Route. The purpose of this essay is to contribute by advising ship-owners on what route they should use from a legal perspective. Both routes have their specific risk, the Southern Route by piracy and the Northern Route by harsh weather conditions, ice and floating icebergs. Both hazards are such that no matter how much precaution is taken, casualties will occur and legal issues on who will be liable for damage and loss will arise and referred to dispute resolution. This thesis is limited to whether certainty in providing a vessel that the court will deem seaworthy differs between the two routes and whether it is a relevant aspect to take into account. Seaworthiness derives from the law merchant, it is an implied obligation in contracts of affreightment by common law, an implied warranty in insurance policies and explicitly inserted in most contracts. This thesis will be limited to Hull Insurance regulated in s 39(5) Marine Insurance Act 1906 United Kingdome (‘MIA’) and Bills of Lading (‘BOL’) mandatory regulated by the Hague and the Hague-Visby Rules. Under a Hull Insurance the insurer will be exempted from liability to indemnify the assured for loss if the loss is attributable to unseaworthiness to which the assured is privy. Under the Hague and the Hague-Visby Rules the ship-owner is obliged to exercise due diligence to make the ship seaworthy before and at the beginning of the voyage. If cargo is damaged or lost the ship-owner will be liable to the cargo-owner unless he can show that he had exercised due diligence to make the ship seaworthy and the damage or loss was caused by an act for which the ship-owner is exempted from liability. The applicable test to determine if a vessel is seaworthy and if due diligence has been exercised to make the ship seaworthy is whether a prudent ship-owner knowing in the particular ship-owners place would deem the vessel seaworthy and have done what a prudent ship-owner would have done to ensure itÂŽs seaworthiness. The tests are objective measured against standards and knowledge in the shipping industry as a whole. Privy to seaworthiness is a subjective test, based on the ship-owners actual, or blind-eye-knowledge. Courts donÂŽt consider objective standards that are not causative to the casualty or are not adequate because the ship-owner should have known that the ship needed better standards for the intended adventure or certain factors contained risks for defect and needed better surveillance. If there are objective standards that fit the intended voyage and adventure they are taken into account and if the ship-owner can show he complies with all standards due diligence is exercised to seaworthiness. Objective standards can show the ship-owner is not privy to seaworthiness. The International Maritime Organization (‘IMO’) guidelines are accepted as objective standards, and IMO has issued hazard-specific guidelines both in respect of piracy, harsh weather conditions and ice, the Best Management Practices for Protection against Somali based Piracy (‘BMP’) and the Guidelines for Ships Operating in Polar Waters (‘Polar guidelines’). These guidelines are different in respect of form, scope and content. By comparing the guidelines in the light of factors courts take into account in assessing seaworthiness, it has been concluded that they serve differently in seaworthiness assessments under the two contracts. The Polar guidelines are more detailed and comprehensive and certificates are issued to prove compliance in respect of the crew and the vessel and are better for the ship-owner in an insurance claim. The BMP are based on real accidents, the information is practical and more suitable as objective factors for a seaworthiness claim. If a ship-owner complies with these, he will most likely have been deemed to have exercised due diligence to seaworthiness. The insurer bears the burden of proving privy to unseaworthiness whereas the ship-owner bears the burden of proving he has exercised due diligence to seaworthiness. The claim under the BOL is therefore more difficult to succeed and the advice is for the ship-owner to travel the Southern Route. However, seaworthiness is a very broad term and relates to every aspect of the adventure; although seaworthy in relation to the specific hazard it may be unseaworthy for a general aspect. Because it is so uncertain and impossible to pre-empt what the court will decide, ship-owners should not place too great reliance on this aspect in deciding whether to travel the Southern Route or the Northern Sea Route

    Evidence from d+Au measurements for final-state suppression of high pTp_T hadrons in Au+Au collisions at RHIC

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    We report measurements of single-particle inclusive spectra and two-particle azimuthal distributions of charged hadrons at high transverse momentum (high pTp_T) in minimum bias and central d+Au collisions at sNN\sqrt{s_{NN}}=200 GeV. The inclusive yield is enhanced in d+Au collisions relative to binary-scaled p+p collisions, while the two-particle azimuthal distributions are very similar to those observed in p+p collisions. These results demonstrate that the strong suppression of the inclusive yield and back-to-back correlations at high pTp_T previously observed in central Au+Au collisions are due to final-state interactions with the dense medium generated in such collisions.Comment: Final journal version. Data tables for figures may be downloaded from the STAR home page: http://www.star.bnl.gov --> Publications --> Access to STAR published dat

    Inclusive pi^0, eta, and direct photon production at high transverse momentum in p+p and d+Au collisions at sqrt(s_NN) = 200 GeV

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    We report a measurement of high-p_T inclusive pi^0, eta, and direct photon production in p+p and d+Au collisions at sqrt(s_NN) = 200 GeV at midrapidity (0 gamma gamma were detected in the Barrel Electromagnetic Calorimeter of the STAR experiment at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. The eta -> gamma gamma decay was also observed and constituted the first eta measurement by STAR. The first direct photon cross section measurement by STAR is also presented, the signal was extracted statistically by subtracting the pi^0, eta, and omega(782) decay background from the inclusive photon distribution observed in the calorimeter. The analysis is described in detail, and the results are found to be in good agreement with earlier measurements and with next-to-leading order perturbative QCD calculations.Comment: 28 pages, 30 figures, 6 tables, the updated version that was accepted by Phys. Rev.

    Rapidity and species dependence of particle production at large transverse momentum for dd+Au collisions at \sqrt s_NN = 200 GeV

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    We determine rapidity asymmetry in the production of charged pions, protons and anti-protons for large transverse momentum (pT) for d+Au collisions at \sqrt s_NN = 200 GeV. The identified hadrons are measured in the rapidity regions |y| < 0.5 and 0.5 < |y| < 1.0 for the pT range 2.5 < pT < 10 GeV/c. We observe significant rapidity asymmetry for charged pion and proton+anti-proton production in both rapidity regions. The asymmetry is larger for 0.5 < |y| < 1.0 than for |y|< 0.5 and is almost independent of particle type. The measurements are compared to various model predictions employing multiple scattering, energy loss, nuclear shadowing, saturation effects, and recombination, and also to a phenomenological parton model. We find that asymmetries are sensitive to model parameters and show model-preference. The rapidity dependence of \pi^{-}/\pi^{+} and \bar{p}/p ratios in peripheral d+Au and forward neutron-tagged events are used to study the contributions of valence quarks and gluons to particle production at high pT. The results are compared to calculations based on NLO pQCD and other measurements of quark fragmentation functions.Comment: 14 pages and 13 figure
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